Study of Knowledge Essay Example

Study of Knowledge Essay Example Study of Knowledge Essay Study of Knowledge Essay Epistemology – The Study of Knowledge Jeff Castro PHI 200 Dr. Akins February 4, 2013 Epistemology – The Study of Knowledge The study of knowledge has always been the journey toward truth and understanding. Epistemology deals with the creation and distribution of knowledge in certain areas of inquiry. Humans should be free to gain, study and question knowledge and claims without repercussions in any social, cultural or religious setting. As we move forward in our understanding of life, religion and nature, we have changed our way of thinking through philosophy. We are less ignorant and uneducated about the truths of the world and how we as human beings perform in it. Knowledge and the confirmation of knowledge can be confirmed by propositional and procedural knowledge or knowledge by acquaintance. Propositional knowledge is expressed in declarative sentences or indicative propositions of one’s knowledge based on the known or knowing that. If someone says â€Å"all birds have feathers† they are stating or asserting a proposition that is factual or somewhat factual. Procedural knowledge is the knowledge used in the performance of a task, such as knowing how to replace brakes on a vehicle. It is learned knowledge through doing that act. Knowledge by acquaintance is experience based knowledge learned through casual interaction, such as knowing a place or person well (Mosser, 2010). Knowing for certain is always questionable because everything can be challenged. For the three identified ways of attaining knowledge, the most challenged one is propositional knowledge. Propositional knowledge receives the most skepticism because of the statements it brings forward, like â€Å"I believe that†, â€Å"I know that† and â€Å"I think that† (Steup, 2005). These statements are based on one’s beliefs, thoughts and ideas which can be questioned. If knowledge is based on one’s beliefs or opinions it will bring challenges, but remember an individual’s ideas based on beliefs or opinions should respected. We are certain of the other two due to experiencing or performing acts to solidify the knowledge. But then still can be questioned because of different procedures or experiences can still result in a different or validation of an outcome or answer. To justify what we really know is inherited, learned or experienced. We cannot really be certain of our knowledge because we can be tricked or limited by our sense that provides us this information to confirm or deny what we know or learn. Knowledge at one point is imperfect, but the truth at that point and is reinforced by the progress of science to be an absolute truth to some degree and as Vladimir Lenin says, There is no impassable boundary between relative and absolute truth. (Bogdanov, 1908). The normal order of the world is how we perceive it through our senses. It can play tricks on us and deceive through illusions that the mind receives from sight, sound, taste and touch. How humans recognize what is real and not real through their senses is known as empiricism (Mosser, 2010). Empiricists view that there is no such thing as innate knowledge, but instead knowledge is received from experience. On the argument side you have rationalism which view knowledge to be innate. It argues that the knowledge of God, mathematics and science cannot be explained by the senses (Mosser, 2010). But this does contradicts how we learn, because without the senses how do we learn mathematics, science or the knowledge of God (the bible). Innate knowledge is derived from the mind, but requires other things to support or build the mind, the senses. Let’s break down the five senses (vision, sound, touch, smell and taste) and try to understand what can be limited and why. Vision can be received or altered based on the ability to distinguish objects, the depth or field, color, contrast, or even color blindness. Sound can be affected by the volume or pitch that is received by the ears. Touch can be affected by your haptic perception and how sensitive one’s outer skin is. Smell and taste can be affected by our bad habits (smoking and drinking), disease or medications. So the limitations of one’s senses can fool and be limited by our own doings and by the aging process (Gwizdka, 2010). Cognitive relativism is the idea of the knowledge we hold of the real world requires assistance from our mental/mind to build and support and that things being the truth or false are relative to a society, group or individual. I also realize that there are cognitive bias, notational bias and culture bias, which prevents us from seeing or analyzing something objectively with our senses (empiricism) which we cannot discount. So to really assert a position of truth would depend on who interprets it based on moral, ethical, or social view (Slick, 2012). Friedrich Nietzsche developed perspectivism which supports cognitive relativism in that there are many possible perspectives to determine any possible assessment of the truth to be determined. This means that there is doubt and uncertainty about how we see the world and the truth about it based on perspectives. The limits to human perception or cognition are bounded by each individual and how they can comprehend or process what they are receiving. The processing of the knowledge can be expanded upon through the use of one’s innate knowledge. We limited ourselves based on what we only know and what is in front of us. If we can make sense of the world beyond what our senses take in we would be much better off, but remember it is all based on one’s perspective of faith, ideas, thoughts and knowledge. Skepticism is originally was defined as someone who simply looked at things and now it is someone who doubts claims. Skepticism forces claims to be justified (Mosser, 2010). When assessing epistemology on the bases of what is known and the unknown we will still question everything for it is uncertain that we really know the truth about something. Yet there will still be limits on what we question because some are based on faith, which is an individual’s belief in their religion. There are several types of skepticism: moral, religious, metaphysical and scientific. Each identifying a particular area to question or doubt, but what I find most questionable or intriguing are the religious skepticism or theological skepticism which examines faith-based claims and scientific skepticism or empirical skepticism which uses the scientific method of examining claims. Religious skepticism does not mean one would be either an Atheist or Agnostic. These skeptics question religious authority, but are not anti-religious just because they question specific or all religious beliefs or practices. One of the first religious skeptics was Socrates, he questioned the legitimacy of the beliefs during his time of the existence of various gods and this led to his trial and execution. Scientific skepticism seek proof through deductive argument before accepting any knowledge in any area, such as health claims, environmental claims, parapsychology, etc. Carl Sagan originated scientific skepticism and was a world-famous astronomer and astrophysicist well known for supporting the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence (SETI) and questioned that there was more than earth in our and other vast universes. There is also a sub-set of scientific skepticism which is call activist skepticism who seek to expose or prove false publicly what they see as the truth behind extraordinary claims (Klein, 2000). Socrates claimed that he knew one and only one thing: that he knew nothing, which was in line with being a Pyrrhonist. He questioned everyone who claimed to have knowledge, hoping to learn from them, but he never claimed that gaining knowledge was impossible and never claimed to discover any knowledge. As such proof of never recording anything to prove or disprove his knowledge (Mosser, 2010). Sagan wrote in his publications â€Å"Too much openness and you accept every notion, idea, and hypothesis- which is tantamount to knowing nothing. Too much skepticism- especially rejection of new ideas before they are adequately tested- and you’re not only unpleasantly grumpy, but also closed to the advance of science. A judicious mix is what we need. (Sagan, 1995). Both men were skeptics who believed in questioning and challenging claims and exhibited a fascination with discovery. I believe it is in our nature to question everything to ensure we have validated the claim, but as Sagan has stated there is a fine line before tilting it too far to the left or right. I believe the two skepticisms try to get at the answer of how humans came to being. The religious skeptic will question all religions by comparing claims and questioning why to find the ultimate truth of our existence and our true meaning. The scientific skeptic will require proof in the way of science before accepting knowledge to be true (Munchin, 2011). By taking the two and trying to analyze and form a more complete set of questions to develop a more sensible truth or theory behind the human existence would possibly help me understand or rationalize the questions of â€Å"why† and â€Å"how† in my mind. But I understand there are limits to what I chose to believe as my ideas or perceptions (Shogenji, 2011). The decision between right and wrong is relative to one’s society or cultural background. Relativism in the Muslim world would be a death sentence (honor killing) and we would see it as radical relativism. It is easily defendable in their culture and country because it is viewed as a norm or way of life, but not so within most other countries. It is all about perspective because we to at one time burned people at the stake for being witches. Ignorance and lack of education or knowledge made it defensible and accepted at that time. So is radical relativism defensible, it is all about an individual’s or country’s perspective, religious beliefs and culture to decide one way or the other (Mosser, 2010). The basic understanding of philosophy and how it affects our lives is sometimes transparent to most people because they only do without thinking. We have gotten so busy with our tethered lives we do not take the time to question why something is true or not, we move around like mindless beings. Epistemology gives us that way to question and seek knowledge to validate truth and to hope to truly understand the â€Å"why† and â€Å"how† of our lives and everything in and around us. Humans should be free to gain, study and question knowledge and claims without repercussions in any social, cultural or religious setting. But this is an ongoing battle to be free from repercussions or persecution of our thoughts, ideas and actions when publically projected. Some countries and cultures still lash out in the way of medieval and barbaric manner at anything that does not fit their way of life and interactions, but it is all relative and it still falls within the study of philosophy. Choosing to accept this or not, based on beliefs, ideas and religion is your choice, but to understand and have a greater degree of insight of knowledge and truth is true epistemology. References Bogdanov, A. (1908). Absolute and Relative Truth, or the Eclecticism of Engels. Retrieved from: marxists. org/archive/lenin/works/1908/mec/two5. htm Gwizdka, J. (2010). Human Perception Cognition. Retrieved from: http://comminfo. rutgers. edu/~jacekg/teaching/ITI230_HCI/2006_4f/lectures/Lecture3. pdf Klein, P. (2000). Contextualism and the Real Nature of Academic Skepticism. Retrieved from: jstor. org. proxy-library. ashford. edu/stable/pdfplus/3050570. pdf? acceptTC=true Mosser, K. (2010). A Concise Introduction to Philosophy. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Munchin, D. (2011). ‘Is theology a science? ’ Paul Feyerabend’s anarchic epistemology as challenge test to T. F. Torrance’s scientific theology. Retrieved from: http://search. proquest. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/cv_756002/docview/894110952/fulltextPDF/13C00235777679CB0A0/4? accountid=32521 Sagan, C. 1995). Wonder and Skepticism, Vol 19, Issue 1. Retrieved from: positiveatheism. org/writ/saganws. htm Shogenji, T. (2011). Internalism and Externalism in Meliorative Epistemology. Retrieved from: http://search. proquest. com. proxy-library. ashford. edu/cv_756002/docview/1111853938/fulltextPDF/13C06554AFF58193594/1? accountid=32521 Slick, M. (2012). Cognitive Relativism. Retrieved from: http://carm. org/secular-movem ents/relativism/cognitive-relativism Steup, M. (2005). Epistemology. Retrieved from: http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/epistemology/

The Complete Guide to Grants for College

The Complete Guide to Grants for College SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you know you’ll need to get financial aid to make college more affordable (most students do, by the way), then you should definitely learn everything you can about grants. They happen to be some of the best forms of financial aid you can get. Here, I’ll tell you exactly why grants are so great and why you should seek them out. Then, I’ll get to the important stuff: where and how you can get your own grant awards. Let’s get started! What Are Grants for College? Grants are sometimes called â€Å"gift aid.† Grant money is funding that you don’t have to work for (like work study) and that you don’t have to pay back (like loans). At this point, you may be thinking that college grants sound pretty similar to scholarships. And you’re right - they generally work in the same way in that you don’t have to pay back either type of funding. The major difference between grants and scholarships is that grants are usually primarily based on financial need, whereas scholarships are often merit-based or need- and merit-based. Why Are Grants so Great? College grants are awesome forms of financial aid because they lower your college costs immediately and forever. Other forms of financial aid - loans, specifically - are helpful when you don’t have the money to pay for college, but they can become a burden after you graduate because you have to pay them back (plus interest). Loans are band-aids that cost you money in the long run - this doesn’t mean that they can’t be helpful and important forms of financial aid, but grants are superior to loans because you get the money up front and are under no obligation to pay back the funds later on. Another reason why grants are so great? Because they tend to be need-based, they’re often awarded to students who need them the most. Although there are definitely financial aid opportunities out there for students who come from more privileged backgrounds, grants are primarily awarded to students with very limited financial resources. Where Can You Get Grants for College? There are a few major sources of grants for college students. Because there’s no standardized application, protocol, or eligibility criteria for all grants available to college students, things can seem a bit complicated at first. Not to worry, though - things aren’t as complicated if you’re able to break down grants by funding source. Here are the most important places to find grant funding, along with basic eligibility criteria for each funding source. Federal Government - Eligibility requirements for federal grants are laid out in our Pell Grant guide. Overall, the requirements are pretty lax - the major ones are that you need a high school diploma or GED, and you need to be enrolled (or accepted to enroll) in a college or career school. State Government - Eligibility requirements for state-based grants will, unsurprisingly, vary by state. At the very least you should meet all federal requirements in addition to being a state resident. Get more detailed information about state financial aid programs. Your School - In the context of this post, I’m defining a grant as an award that’s strictly need-based. Schools may award grants or â€Å"scholarships† that are based on financial need, not merit, to students who have been accepted and need help paying the full Cost of Attendance. Eligibility reqs will vary by school, but some schools tend to be more generous than others. If you only take away one piece of information from this section, it should be this: the most well-known grants are the ones offered through the federal government. The application process and eligibility requirements are very standardized, so the grants are very predictable. Predictability means you can estimate a budget for your grant awards before you even apply! Federal sources should be your first consideration when you start looking into grant opportunities. Federal Grants for College There are many different federal grant options, each with their own requirements and award amounts. Here, I’ll cover the main federal grants and what you should know about them. Pell Grants - These are for students who haven’t yet earned a bachelor’s or professional degree. The maximum award for 2016-2017 is $5,815, although the amount you get is determined by your financial need. This is the largest and most important federal grant program. FSEOG (Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant) - These are for undergraduate students with exceptional financial need. They’re administered directly by the financial aid offices at participating schools, and are therefore called â€Å"campus-based† aid. Recipients get between $100-$4,000 per year depending on financial need. TEACH Grants (Teacher Education Assistance for College and Higher Education) - These are different from most other grants because they have some strings attached. The awards are meant to help students pay for college if they plan on becoming a teacher in a high-need field in a low-income area. To keep the grant from becoming a loan, you need to take certain kinds of classes and get a certain kind of job. Students can get up to $4,000 per year. Iraq and Afghanistan Service Grants - Students whose parent or guardian died as a result of military service in Iraq or Afghanistan may be eligible for these grants. The grant maximum is the same as that of the Pell Grant, which is $5,815 for 2016-2017. These awards can cover a pretty significant chunk of your college expenses, especially if you’re also getting aid from other sources, like outside scholarships or school-based financial aid. State Grants for College State grant amounts and eligibility will vary based on where you live. Sometimes you just need to fill out a FAFSA to be considered for state grant aid, whereas other times you’ll need to fill out a separate financial aid application. The good news is that almost every state education agency has at least one grant or scholarship available to residents. For more information, look into grant availability for your state. Grants from Your College or University Just like with state grants, institutional grant aid availability and eligibility will vary based on the school you attend. Many highly ranked schools offer relatively large amounts of grant aid based on financial need. Some schools offer impressive amounts of merit aid in order to attract competitive applicants. There are a couple of ways you can get more info about typical grant aid at a particular school: Check out that school’s net price calculator (almost every school has one on its admissions and/or financial aid website). You enter in your financial and sometimes academic information, and the tool spits out an estimate of the amount of aid you’d receive if you attended that school. Google â€Å"[school name] PrepScholar tuition† for our page on that school’s grant, scholarship, and loan availability. The page will walk you through estimating your own aid eligibility at that school. Example: The first search result link here is the one you want. How Do You Apply for Grants? Now that you have a better idea of why grants are awesome and how much money you can actually get, the next step would be to submit those grant applications. So where do you start? Again, the process for applying for college grants depends on where the money comes from. Here, I’ll break down application processes for the major sources of grant funding. Federal Government You may not have expected this, but the federal government actually makes it pretty easy to apply for grant funding (and all federal funding, really). You just have to submit one application: the FAFSA. You’ll need to gather quite a bit of financial information for both yourself and your parents before you start, but once you have that paperwork the actual application shouldn’t take long. Get step-by-step instructions on how to complete your FAFSA. To estimate the amount of aid you’ll be eligible for before you even submit your FAFSA, read about how to use the FASFA4caster. State Government Unfortunately, some states don’t make it quite as easy to apply for grants. You’ll have to do your own research on what your state of residency requires. Learn more about specific state aid availability and application processes. Your School Oftentimes, your application for grant money (at least for your freshman year) is your college application - you may not need to submit any additional paperwork, which really streamlines the whole process. To double-check that you’re not missing out on any grant opportunities at a specific school, just Google â€Å"[school name] grants and scholarships.† There should be a page on that school’s financial aid website with more information on available aid - just make sure you’re only looking at awards for undergraduate students at the grade level you’re entering. For more information on school grant aid, check out these posts: Schools with the best financial aid Schools with 100% financial aid How to win a full ride scholarship Other Options for Financial Aid If you’re on the lookout for need-based aid, there are other options out there besides grant funding. Scholarships Many private and nonprofit organizations offer scholarships (remember, scholarships often include merit requirements) with strict financial need qualifications. Scholarships from private organizations may be offered on a local, state, national, or even international level - as you might expect, then, there’s no single consolidated database with information on all available grants from private sources. But that doesn’t mean that there aren’t good resources out there for you to start your research! Each private scholarship or grant organization will have its own deadline, eligibility requirements, and application process. The good news is that this means more chances to win money; the bad news is that you’ll have to keep track of a lot of moving parts, especially if you apply to several grant or scholarship programs. Step one is actually finding grant/scholarship programs you think may be a good fit. I personally think this is the hardest part of the process. Then, you just have to be organized about submitting all parts of your applications in a polished and timely fashion. Read more about how to win a full ride scholarship for more information on getting grant aid. You can also check out our guides to individual scholarship programs, like the Gates Millennium and Coca-Cola scholarships, for tips and strategies for winning competitive awards. Check out these guides to learn more about private grants and scholarships: The best scholarship search tools The ultimate local scholarship guide Top scholarships for juniors and seniors in high school How to get a merit scholarship Easy scholarships to win Easy scholarships to apply for Most of these scholarship programs consider both merit and financial need when awarding funds. Federal Work Study The Federal Work Study Program encourages employers to hire students with federal work study awards, which opens up job opportunities for you while you’re in college. This isn’t a grant, loan, or scholarship - you earn a wage like with any other job, but you’re able to use the money as you see fit. You’re considered for a Work Study award when you submit your FAFSA, so you don’t have any extra paperwork to fill out if you’re interested in this need-based program. Read more about Federal Work Study for more information. Summary: How Grants Can Help You Grants - which are available from all sorts of sources - are a great way to make college more affordable, especially if your family is relatively low-income (this increases your chances of qualifying for grant aid). To optimize the amount of grant money you receive, you should check out funding from federal, state, institutional, and private sources. This may mean that you juggle several deadlines and applications, but I promise that if you do your due diligence ahead of time, the money you save will prove worth it in the long run. What’s Next? There are so many other things to learn if you’re interested in budgeting smart for college. Start off by getting the basics on by learning about the four different types of financial aid. Then, read more about reducing your dependence on loans - this means less debt to worry about once you graduate. If you won’t be getting much (or any) financial support from family, you may want to learn more about how to pay for college without your parents. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: